Measuring Psychological Load in Sport

Stephen Mellalieu; Christopher Jones; Christopher Wagstaff; Simon Kemp; Matthew J. Cross

doi:10.1055/a-1446-9642

International Journal of Sports Medicine, Table of Contents

Int J Sports Med 2021; 42(09): 782-788
DOI: 10.1055/a-1446-9642

Review

Measuring Psychological Load in Sport

Stephen Mellalieu

¹School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

,

Christopher Jones

²Sports and Wellbeing Analytics, Swansea, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

³A-STEM, College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

,

Christopher Wagstaff

⁴Department of Sport, Health, and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

,

Simon Kemp

⁵Rugby Football Union, Twickenham, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

⁶Faculty of Epidemiology and Public Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK

,

Matthew J. Cross

⁷Premier Rugby Limited, Twickenham, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

› Author Affiliations

Abstract

Monitoring the physical load undertaken by athletes and examining the subsequent relationship with performance and injury and illness risk is common practice in high performance sport. Less attention has been paid to the psychological factors contributing to the overall load experienced and the impact upon health status and performance. This paper discusses considerations for the conceptualization and measurement of psychological load in sport. First, we outline the importance of ensuring conceptual clarity is adopted in the measurement of psychological load. Next, we discuss the challenges to measuring psychological load in a comparable manner to which physical load is currently evaluated, including use of subjective assessment, adoption of specific and global approaches, and development of measurement instrumentation, techniques, and expertise. We then offer recommendations for practitioners when undertaking assessment of psychological load in sport. We conclude with future research directions to advance the study and measurement of the construct, including the interaction between psychological and physical load, the appraisal of the load faced, and personal and social resources available to successfully cope. We also highlight the need to consider groups of athletes (e. g., transitioning athlete, long-term injured) at greater risk from threats to mental and physical health from increased psychological load.

Key words

athlete monitoring - well-being - life load - health - performance - injury

Full Text

References

References
1 Drew M, Finch C. The relationship between training load and injury, illness and soreness: A systematic and literature review. Sports Med 2016; 46: 861-883 doi:10.1007/s40279-015-0459-8
2 West S, Williams S, Kemp S. et al. Athlete monitoring in rugby union: Is heterogeneity in data capture holding us back?. Sports (Basel) 2019; 7: 98. doi:10.3390/sports7050098
3 Soligard T, Schwellnus M, Alonso J. et al. How much is too much? (Part 1) International Olympic Committee consensus statement on load in sport and risk of injury. Br J Sports Med. 2016 50. 1030-1041 doi:10.1136/bjsports-2016-096581
4 Gabbett T. Debunking the myths about training load, injury and performance: Empirical evidence, hot topics and recommendations for practitioners. Br J Sports Med 2018; 54: 58-66 doi:10.1136/bjsports-2018-099784
5 Quarrie K, Raftery M, Blackie J. et al. Managing player load in professional rugby union: A review of current knowledge and practices. Br J Sports Med 2016; 51: 421-427 doi:10.1136/bjsports-2016-096191
6 Verhagen E, Gabbett T. Load, capacity and health: critical pieces of the holistic performance puzzle. Br J Sports Med 2018; 53: 5-6 doi:10.1136/bjsports-2018-099819
7 Henriksen K, Schinke R, Moesch K. et al. Consensus statement on improving the mental health of high performance athletes. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol 2020; 18: 553-560
8 Lazarus RS. Stress and Emotion: A New Synthesis. New York: Springer Publishing Company; 1999
9 Fletcher D, Hanton S, Mellalieu SD. An Organizational Stress Review: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues in Competitive Sport. New York: Nova Science; 2008
10 Arnold R, Fletcher D. Stress, Well-being and Performance in Sport. London: Routledge; 2021
11 Mellalieu SD, Hanton S, Fletcher DA. Competitive Anxiety Review: Recent Directions in Sport Psychology Research. New York: Nova Science; 2009
12 Mellalieu SD, Neil R, Hanton S. et al. Competition stress in sport performers: Stressors experienced in the competition environment. J Sports Sci 2009; 27: 729-744 doi:10.1080/02640410902889834
13 Fletcher D, Hanton S, Mellalieu SD. et al. A conceptual framework of organizational stressors in sport performers. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2010; 22: 545-557 doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01242.x
14 Arnold R, Fletcher D. A research synthesis and taxonomic classification of the organizational stressors encountered by sport performers. J Sport Exerc Psychol 2012; 34: 397-429 doi:10.1123/jsep.34.3.397
15 Arnold R, Fletcher D, Daniels K. Demographic differences in sport performers’ experiences of organizational stressors. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2015; 26: 348-358 doi:10.1111/sms.12439
16 Gould D, Jackson S, Finch L. Sources of stress in national champion figure skaters. J Sport Exerc Psychol 1993; 15: 134-159 doi:10.1123/jsep.15.2.134
17 Noblet SM, Gifford A. The sources of stress experienced by professional Australian footballers. J App Sport Psychol 2002; 14: 1-13 doi:10.1080/104132002753403799
18 McLoughlin E, Fletcher D, Slavich GM. et al. Cumulative lifetime stress exposure, depression, anxiety, and well-being in elite athletes: A mixed-method study. Psychol Sport Exerc 2021; 52: 101823 doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101823
19 Nicholls A, Holt N, Polman R. et al. Stressors, coping, and coping effectiveness among professional rugby union players. Sport Psychol 2006; 20: 314-329 doi:10.1123/tsp.20.3.314
20 Slavich GM, Shields GS. Assessing lifetime stress exposure using the Stress and Adversity Inventory for Adults (Adult STRAIN): An overview and initial validation. Psychosom Med 2018; 80: 17-27 doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000534
21 Tomaka J, Blascovich J, Kelsey RM. et al. Subjective, physiological, and behavioural effects of threat and challenge appraisal. J Pers Soc Psychol 1993; 65: 248-260
22 Moore L, Wilson M, Vine S. et al. Champ or chump? Challenge and threat states during pressurized competition. J Sport Exerc Psychol 2013; 35: 551-562 doi:10.1123/jsep.35.6.551
23 Foster C, Florhaug J, Franklin J. et al. A new approach to monitoring exercise training. J Strength Cond Res 2001; 15: 109-115 doi:10.1519/00124278-200102000-00019
24 Zijlstra FRH. Efﬁciency in Work. Behaviour: A Design Approach for Modern Tools. Delft: Delft University Press; 1993
25 Veltman JA, Gaillard AW. Indices of mental workload in a complex task environment. Neuropsychobiol 1993; 28: 72-75 doi:10.1159/000119003
26 Hanton S, Mellalieu SD, Williams JM. Understanding and managing stress in sport. In: Williams JM, Krane V, Eds Applied Sport Psychology: Personal Growth to Peak Performance 7th ed.. New York: McGraw Hill; 2015: 207-239
27 Neil R, Hanton S, Mellalieu SD. et al. Competition stress and emotions in sport performers: The role of further appraisals. Psychol Sport Exerc 2011; 12: 460-470 doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.02.001
28 Hanton S, Fletcher D, Coughlan G. Stress in elite sport performers: A comparative study of competitive and organizational stressors. J Sports Sci 2005; 23: 1129-1141 doi:10.1080/02640410500131480
29 Moore LJ, Young T, Freeman P. et al. Adverse life events, cardiovascular responses, and sports performance under pressure. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2018; 28: 340-347 doi:10.1111/sms.12928
30 Rice SM, Gwyther K, Santesteban-Echarri O. et al. Determinants of anxiety in elite athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med. 2019 53. 722-730 doi:10.1136/bjsports-2019-100620
31 Kellmann M, Kallus KW. The Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes: User Manual. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2011
32 Arnold R, Fletcher D, Daniels K. Development and validation of the Organizational Stressor Indicator for Sport Performers (OSI-SP). J Sport Exerc Psychol 2013; 35: 180-196 doi:10.1123/jsep.35.2.180
33 Twist C, Highton J. Monitoring fatigue and recovery in rugby league players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2013; 8: 467-474 doi:10.1123/ijspp.8.5.467
34 Hart SG, Staveland LE. Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of empirical and theoretical research. Advances in Psychology 1988; 52: 139-183
35 Hart SG. NASA-task load index (NASA-TLX); 20 years later. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 2006; 50: 904-908
36 Wilson MR, Poolton JM, Malhotra N. et al. Development and validation of a surgical workload measure: the surgery task load index (SURG-TLX). World J Surg 2011; 35: 1961-1969 doi:10.1007/s00268–011–1141–4
37 Schwellnus M, Soligard T, Alonso J. et al. How much is too much? (Part 2) International Olympic Committee consensus statement on load in sport and risk of illness. Br J Sports Med 2016; 50: 1043-1052 doi:10.1136/bjsports-2016-096572
38 Gustafsson H, DeFreese J, Madigan D. Athlete burnout: review and recommendations. Curr Opin Psychol 2017; 16: 109-113 doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.05.002
39 Gouttebarge V, Castaldelli-Maia JM, Gorczynski P. et al. Occurrence of mental health symptoms and disorders in current and former elite athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 2019; 53: 700-706 doi:10.1136/bjsports-2019-100671